Cytotoxicity Assessment of Coffea arabica Bean Extract Using Allium cepa Root Tip Assay
Abstract
Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide; however, excessive caffeine intake has been associated with adverse health effects, including headaches, insomnia, anxiety, and increased heart rate. Therefore, investigation is needed into the potential long-term impacts of the caffeine consumed in coffee. This study evaluated the concentration-dependent and time-dependent cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of Coffea arabica (C. arabica) bean extract on Allium cepa (A. cepa) root meristem cells. Five concentrations of C. arabica bean extract were tested: 0% (zero), 25% (low), 50% (moderate), 75% (high), and 100% (extremely high), each with exposures of 24 and 48 hours. Cytotoxicity was evaluated based on the mitotic index (MI) and chromosomal aberrations. Based on the results, all the tested concentrations significantly reduced the MI compared to the control, indicating inhibition of cell division. In particular, the 48-hour treatments with 50%, 75%, and 100% (v/v), resulted in a reduction in the MI compared to the positive control. In addition, all treatments induced various chromosomal abnormalities at both exposure times, including anaphase bridges, telophase bridges, chromosome fragmentation, c-mitosis, chromosome stickiness, and binucleated cells. Among these, the binucleated cells were the most frequently observed abnormality, comparable to those observed in the positive control group. In conclusion, C. arabica bean extract demonstrated cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in A. cepa root meristem cells in a concentration-dependent and time-dependent manner. This study highlighted the utility of the A. cepa as a reliable bioassay for evaluating the potential toxicity of natural compounds.
Keywords:
Allium cepa, Chromosomal Aberration, Coffee Extract, Mitotic Index, Root Tip
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References
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Chandraker, S. K., Singh, P., & Pandey, B. (2014). Clastogenic effect of soft drink on root tip of Allium cepa. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science,3(5), 200-206. https://www.ijcmas.com/vol-3-5/Sandip%20Kumar%20Chandraker,%20et%20al.pdf
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Esquivel, P., & Jimenez, V. M. (2012). Functional properties of coffee and coffee by-products. Food Research International, 46(2), 488-495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.05.028
Farhan, E. M., & Tawfiq, R. F. (2016). Detection of Cytotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of Soft Drink” Cola” on Allium Cepa Root Cells. International Journal of Advances in Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, 3(1), 92-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.15242/IJAAEE.ER01160020
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Freund, R.J. & Wilson W.J. (2023). Statistical methods (2nd ed.). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-20216-9
George, M., & George, A. (2017). Genotoxicity of caffeinated soft drinks on meristematic root cells of Allium cepa. 6(11), 22032-22038. https://doi.org/10.15680/IJIRSET.2017.0611037
Hutachok, N., Koonyosying, P., Pankasemsuk, T., Angkasith, P., Chumpun, C., Fucharoen, S., &Srichairatanakool, S. (2021). Chemical analysis, toxicity study, and free-radical scavenging and iron-binding assays involving coffee (Coffea arabica) extracts. Molecules, 26(14), 4169. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26144169
Ito, K., Nakazato, T., Miyakawa, Y., Yamato, K., Ikeda, Y., & Kizaki, M. (2003). Caffeine induces G2/M arrest and apoptosis via a novel p53‐dependent pathway in NB4 promyelocytic leukemia cells. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 196(2), 276-283. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.10289
Khan, I. S., Ali, M. N., Hamid, R., & Ganie, S. A. (2020). Genotoxic effect of two commonly used food dyes metanil yellow and carmoisine using Allium cepa L. as indicator. Toxicology Reports, 7, 370-375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2020.02.009
Madić, V., Stojanović-Radić, Z., Jušković, M., Jugović, D., Popović, A. Ž., & Vasiljević, P. (2019). Genotoxic and antigenotoxic potential of herbal mixture and five medicinal plants used in ethnopharmacology. South African Journal of Botany, 125, 290-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.07.043
Magenis, M. L., de Marcos, P. S., Damiani, A. P., da Silva, A. R. C., Longaretti, L. M.,.... & de Andrade, V. M. (2023). Genotoxic effects of caffeine in female mice exposed during pregnancy and lactation period and their offspring. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, 41(1-2), 36-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/26896583.2023.2213613
Manandhar, G., Apostolakos, P., & Galatis, B. (1996). Cell division of binuclear cells induced by caffeine: spindle organization and determination of division plane. Journal of Plant Research, 109(3), 265-275. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02344473
Mateo, L., Tardo-Dino, P. E., Gomez-Merino, D., Drogou, C., Josse, P. E., Erblang, M., ... &Sauvet, F. (2026). Both acute and chronic caffeine consumption affect cardiovascular responses to total sleep deprivation. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 13, 1718154. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2026.1718154
Meisaprow, P., Aksorn, N., Vinayanuwattikun, C., Chanvorachote, P., &Sukprasansap, M. (2021). Caffeine induces G0/G1 cell cycle arrest and inhibits migration through integrin αv, β3, and FAK/Akt/c-Mycsignaling pathway. Molecules, 26(24), 7659. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26247659
Mrvos, R. M., Reilly, P. E., Dean, B. S., &Krenzelok, E. P. (1989). Massive caffeine ingestion resulting in death. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 31(6), 571-572.
Nicuță, D., Grosu, L., Patriciu, O. I., Voicu, R. E., & Alexa, I. C. (2025). The Allium cepa model: a review of its application as a cytogenetic tool for evaluating the biosafety potential of plant extracts. Methods and Protocols, 8(4), 88. https://doi.org/10.3390/mps8040088
Osigwe, C.C., Uwaeme, U.F., Okokon, J.E., &Enomfon, K. (2025). Genotoxic and cytotoxic activities of ethanol leaf extract of Panicum maximum Jacq. (Poaceae) on root meristem of Allium cepa bulb. Journal of Biomolecular Toxicology, 1(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.56717/jbt.2025.v01i01.03
Pampalona, J., Soler, D., Genesca, A., &Tusell, L. (2010). Telomere dysfunction and chromosome structure modulate the contribution of individual chromosomes in abnormal nuclear morphologies. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 683(1-2), 16-22.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2009.10.001
Porta, M., Vioque, J., Ayude, D., Alguacil, J., Jariod, M., Ruiz, L., & Murillo, J. A. (2003). Coffee drinking: the rationale for treating it as a potential effect modifier of carcinogenic exposures. European Journal of Epidemiology, 18(4), 289-298.https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023700216945
Raghunath, S., Budaraju, S., Gharibzahedi, S. M. T., Koubaa, M., Roohinejad, S., &Mallikarjunan, K. (2023). Processing technologies for the extraction of value-added bioactive compounds from tea. Food Engineering Reviews, 15(2), 276-308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-023-09338-2
Reyes, C. M., & Cornelis, M. C. (2018). Caffeine in the diet: country-level consumption and guidelines. Nutrients, 10(11), 1772. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10111772
Riedel, A., Hochkogler, C. M., Lang, R., Bytof, G., Lantz, I., Hofmann, T., & Somoza, V. (2014). N-methylpyridinium, a degradation product of trigonelline upon coffee roasting, stimulates respiratory activity and promotes glucose utilization in HepG2 cells. Food & function, 5(3), 454-462. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3FO60320B
Ruxton, C. H. S. (2008). The impact of caffeine on mood, cognitive function, performance and hydration: a review of benefits and risks. Nutrition bulletin, 33, 15-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2007.00665.x
Samoggia, A., & Rezzaghi, T. (2021). The consumption of caffeine-containing products to enhance sports performance: An application of an extended model of the theory of planned behavior. Nutrients, 13(2), 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020344
Shinde, R. R., & Shinde, N. H. (2017). Extraction of caffeine from coffee and preparation of Anacin drug. International journal of engineering Research and Technology, 10(1), 236-239. https://www.ripublication.com/irph/ijert_spl17/ijertv10n1spl_45.pdf
Singh, H. P., Batish, D. R., & Kohli, R. K. (2001). Allelopathy in agroecosystems: an overview. Journal of Crop Production, 4(2), 1-41. https://doi.org/10.1300/J144v04n02_01
Stewénius, Y., Gorunova, L., Jonson, T., Larsson, N., Höglund, M., Mandahl, N., ... &Gisselsson, D. (2005). Structural and numerical chromosome changes in colon cancer develop through telomere-mediated anaphase bridges, not through mitotic multipolarity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(15), 5541-5546. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0408454102
Temple, J. L., Bernard, C., Lipshultz, S. E., Czachor, J. D., Westphal, J. A., & Mestre, M. A. (2017). The safety of ingested caffeine: A comprehensive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 80.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00080
Wikoff, D., Welsh, B. T., Henderson, R., Brorby, G. P., Britt, J., Myers, E., ... & Doepker, C. (2017). Systematic review of the potential adverse effects of caffeine consumption in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 109, 585-648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2017.04.002
Ashihara, H. (2006). Metabolism of alkaloids in coffee plants. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-04202006000100001
Bauer, D., Abreu, J., Jordão, N., Rosa, J. S. D., Freitas-Silva, O., & Teodoro, A. (2018). Effect of roasting levels and drying process of Coffea canephora on the quality of bioactive compounds and cytotoxicity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(11), 3407. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19113407
BenchChem Technical Support Team. (2025, December). Preparation of orcein solution for laboratory use: Application notes and protocols. https://pdf.benchchem.com/1677/Preparation_of_Orcein_Solution_for_Laboratory_Use_Application_Notes_and_Protocols.pdf
Bizard, A. H., & Hickson, I. D. (2018). Anaphase: a fortune-teller of genomic instability. Current Opinion in Cell Biology, 52, 112-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceb.2018.02.012
Bode, A. M., & Dong, Z. (2007). The enigmatic effects of caffeine in cell cycle and cancer. Cancer Letters, 247(1), 26-39.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2006.03.032
Bonciu, E., Liman, R., &Ciğerci, İ. H. (2022). Assessment of cytotoxicity of a caffeinated soft drink using Allium Assay. Annals of the University of Craiova-Agriculture Montanology Cadastre Series, 52(1), 43-50.https://doi.org/10.52846/aamc.v52i1.1312
Chandraker, S. K., Singh, P., & Pandey, B. (2014). Clastogenic effect of soft drink on root tip of Allium cepa. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science,3(5), 200-206. https://www.ijcmas.com/vol-3-5/Sandip%20Kumar%20Chandraker,%20et%20al.pdf
da Silva, S. A., Souza, N. M. P., Trindade, G. A. D. M., Flauzino, M. W. P., de Oliveira, C. F., Brucker, N., ... &Reolon, J. B. (2026). The Allium cepa assay in nanotoxicology: A scoping review of its biological and toxicological applications. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 432, 112041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2026.112041
Doepker, C., Lieberman, H. R., Smith, A. P., Peck, J. D., El-Sohemy, A., & Welsh, B. T. (2016). Caffeine: friend or foe?.Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 7(1), 117-137. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-041715-033243
Donghua, L., Wusheng, J., Chunli, W., & Lin, Z. (1996). Effects of Zn 2+ on root growth, cell division, and nucleoli of Allium cepa L. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 8(1), 21-27.https://www.sciengine.com/JEnvSci/doi/10.0000/1001-0742.19960103
Esquivel, P., & Jimenez, V. M. (2012). Functional properties of coffee and coffee by-products. Food Research International, 46(2), 488-495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.05.028
Farhan, E. M., & Tawfiq, R. F. (2016). Detection of Cytotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of Soft Drink” Cola” on Allium Cepa Root Cells. International Journal of Advances in Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, 3(1), 92-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.15242/IJAAEE.ER01160020
Febrianto, N. A., & Zhu, F. (2023). Coffee bean processing: Emerging methods and their effects on chemical, biological and sensory properties. Food Chemistry, 412, 135489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135489
Ferguson, L. R., & Philpott, M. (2008). Nutrition and mutagenesis. Annual Review Nutrition,28, 313-329. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.28.061807.155449
Firbas, P., & Amon, T. (2014). Chromosome damage studies in the onion plant Allium cepa L. Caryologia, 67(1), 25-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00087114.2014.891696
Freitas, V. V., Borges, L. L. R., Vidigal, M. C. T. R., dos Santos, M. H., &Stringheta, P. C. (2024). Coffee: A comprehensive overview of origin, market, and the quality process. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 146, 104411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104411
Freund, R.J. & Wilson W.J. (2023). Statistical methods (2nd ed.). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-20216-9
George, M., & George, A. (2017). Genotoxicity of caffeinated soft drinks on meristematic root cells of Allium cepa. 6(11), 22032-22038. https://doi.org/10.15680/IJIRSET.2017.0611037
Hutachok, N., Koonyosying, P., Pankasemsuk, T., Angkasith, P., Chumpun, C., Fucharoen, S., &Srichairatanakool, S. (2021). Chemical analysis, toxicity study, and free-radical scavenging and iron-binding assays involving coffee (Coffea arabica) extracts. Molecules, 26(14), 4169. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26144169
Ito, K., Nakazato, T., Miyakawa, Y., Yamato, K., Ikeda, Y., & Kizaki, M. (2003). Caffeine induces G2/M arrest and apoptosis via a novel p53‐dependent pathway in NB4 promyelocytic leukemia cells. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 196(2), 276-283. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.10289
Khan, I. S., Ali, M. N., Hamid, R., & Ganie, S. A. (2020). Genotoxic effect of two commonly used food dyes metanil yellow and carmoisine using Allium cepa L. as indicator. Toxicology Reports, 7, 370-375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2020.02.009
Madić, V., Stojanović-Radić, Z., Jušković, M., Jugović, D., Popović, A. Ž., & Vasiljević, P. (2019). Genotoxic and antigenotoxic potential of herbal mixture and five medicinal plants used in ethnopharmacology. South African Journal of Botany, 125, 290-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.07.043
Magenis, M. L., de Marcos, P. S., Damiani, A. P., da Silva, A. R. C., Longaretti, L. M.,.... & de Andrade, V. M. (2023). Genotoxic effects of caffeine in female mice exposed during pregnancy and lactation period and their offspring. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, 41(1-2), 36-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/26896583.2023.2213613
Manandhar, G., Apostolakos, P., & Galatis, B. (1996). Cell division of binuclear cells induced by caffeine: spindle organization and determination of division plane. Journal of Plant Research, 109(3), 265-275. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02344473
Mateo, L., Tardo-Dino, P. E., Gomez-Merino, D., Drogou, C., Josse, P. E., Erblang, M., ... &Sauvet, F. (2026). Both acute and chronic caffeine consumption affect cardiovascular responses to total sleep deprivation. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 13, 1718154. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2026.1718154
Meisaprow, P., Aksorn, N., Vinayanuwattikun, C., Chanvorachote, P., &Sukprasansap, M. (2021). Caffeine induces G0/G1 cell cycle arrest and inhibits migration through integrin αv, β3, and FAK/Akt/c-Mycsignaling pathway. Molecules, 26(24), 7659. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26247659
Mrvos, R. M., Reilly, P. E., Dean, B. S., &Krenzelok, E. P. (1989). Massive caffeine ingestion resulting in death. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 31(6), 571-572.
Nicuță, D., Grosu, L., Patriciu, O. I., Voicu, R. E., & Alexa, I. C. (2025). The Allium cepa model: a review of its application as a cytogenetic tool for evaluating the biosafety potential of plant extracts. Methods and Protocols, 8(4), 88. https://doi.org/10.3390/mps8040088
Osigwe, C.C., Uwaeme, U.F., Okokon, J.E., &Enomfon, K. (2025). Genotoxic and cytotoxic activities of ethanol leaf extract of Panicum maximum Jacq. (Poaceae) on root meristem of Allium cepa bulb. Journal of Biomolecular Toxicology, 1(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.56717/jbt.2025.v01i01.03
Pampalona, J., Soler, D., Genesca, A., &Tusell, L. (2010). Telomere dysfunction and chromosome structure modulate the contribution of individual chromosomes in abnormal nuclear morphologies. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 683(1-2), 16-22.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2009.10.001
Porta, M., Vioque, J., Ayude, D., Alguacil, J., Jariod, M., Ruiz, L., & Murillo, J. A. (2003). Coffee drinking: the rationale for treating it as a potential effect modifier of carcinogenic exposures. European Journal of Epidemiology, 18(4), 289-298.https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023700216945
Raghunath, S., Budaraju, S., Gharibzahedi, S. M. T., Koubaa, M., Roohinejad, S., &Mallikarjunan, K. (2023). Processing technologies for the extraction of value-added bioactive compounds from tea. Food Engineering Reviews, 15(2), 276-308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-023-09338-2
Reyes, C. M., & Cornelis, M. C. (2018). Caffeine in the diet: country-level consumption and guidelines. Nutrients, 10(11), 1772. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10111772
Riedel, A., Hochkogler, C. M., Lang, R., Bytof, G., Lantz, I., Hofmann, T., & Somoza, V. (2014). N-methylpyridinium, a degradation product of trigonelline upon coffee roasting, stimulates respiratory activity and promotes glucose utilization in HepG2 cells. Food & function, 5(3), 454-462. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3FO60320B
Ruxton, C. H. S. (2008). The impact of caffeine on mood, cognitive function, performance and hydration: a review of benefits and risks. Nutrition bulletin, 33, 15-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2007.00665.x
Samoggia, A., & Rezzaghi, T. (2021). The consumption of caffeine-containing products to enhance sports performance: An application of an extended model of the theory of planned behavior. Nutrients, 13(2), 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020344
Shinde, R. R., & Shinde, N. H. (2017). Extraction of caffeine from coffee and preparation of Anacin drug. International journal of engineering Research and Technology, 10(1), 236-239. https://www.ripublication.com/irph/ijert_spl17/ijertv10n1spl_45.pdf
Singh, H. P., Batish, D. R., & Kohli, R. K. (2001). Allelopathy in agroecosystems: an overview. Journal of Crop Production, 4(2), 1-41. https://doi.org/10.1300/J144v04n02_01
Stewénius, Y., Gorunova, L., Jonson, T., Larsson, N., Höglund, M., Mandahl, N., ... &Gisselsson, D. (2005). Structural and numerical chromosome changes in colon cancer develop through telomere-mediated anaphase bridges, not through mitotic multipolarity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(15), 5541-5546. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0408454102
Temple, J. L., Bernard, C., Lipshultz, S. E., Czachor, J. D., Westphal, J. A., & Mestre, M. A. (2017). The safety of ingested caffeine: A comprehensive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 80.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00080
Wikoff, D., Welsh, B. T., Henderson, R., Brorby, G. P., Britt, J., Myers, E., ... & Doepker, C. (2017). Systematic review of the potential adverse effects of caffeine consumption in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 109, 585-648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2017.04.002
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Pedklang, N., Iamnoy, N., Lilaphong, P., Kheepanawattana, P. and Lokkamlue, N. (2026) “Cytotoxicity Assessment of Coffea arabica Bean Extract Using Allium cepa Root Tip Assay”, International Journal of Advancement in Life Sciences Research, 9(3), pp. 1-10. doi: https://doi.org/10.31632/ijalsr.2026.v09i03.001.
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